Abuse and violence in the context of selling or exchanging sexual activity
Content warning: this article includes descriptions of domestic abuse, sexual violence and murder, please read with care.
The issues of risk, harm and safety are integral to the lives of women selling and exchanging sex. It is well-known that women involved in the ‘sex industry’ are at heightened risk of physical, emotional and sexual abuse; and many may have a prior history of abuse, including childhood abuse, domestic abuse and sexual violence.
The impacts to women’s physical and psychological wellbeing are often compounded by the harms they encounter when selling or exchanging sex. For some women, there are additional factors that can increase their vulnerability, for example racism, homophobia, having limited understanding of the English language, having the No Recourse to Public Funds immigration condition or being undocumented in the UK, among others.
Natasha, a participant of the Inside Outside project highlighted the following of her experience in the ‘sex industry’:
The impacts to women’s physical and psychological wellbeing are often compounded by the harms they encounter when selling or exchanging sex. For some women, there are additional factors that can increase their vulnerability, for example racism, homophobia, having limited understanding of the English language, having the No Recourse to Public Funds immigration condition or being undocumented in the UK, among others.
Natasha, a participant of the Inside Outside project highlighted the following of her experience in the ‘sex industry’:
“It’s very risky, like really risky. You can die any time because you don’t know who’s coming in your house. You can get any illness from the customer even if you protect yourself – you know? There can be a lot of danger.”
It is vital to understand the risks that women encounter and the trauma they may carry, and how these impact on their needs, the level of support required and whether they accesses support. Read on to find out the issues affecting the safety of women who sell or exchange sex.
Physical violence
In November 2021, the Encompass Snapshot showed that out of 150 women involved in selling or exchanging sex who were supported in Scotland, 81 had needed support in relation to their safety. A separate UK-wide report by Campbell et al also found that 25% of women selling/exchanging sex indoors had experienced physical violence, while 20% had been forced to perform sexual acts without consent.
The physical violence that women experience can include being slapped, punched, robbed, stabbed, assaulted, threatened with a weapon and kidnapping. The violence can happen in public or private spaces and the perpetrators can include punters, pimps, traffickers, intimate partners, members of the public and other women involved in the sex industry.
Some of the key triggers identified as leading to aggression from clients or those posing as clients include: refusing to perform certain sex acts, disputes over money, the sex act finishing before the man has reached orgasm, and the client failing to get an erection. These have been highlighted as flash points which can result in serious violence.
Threat of murder
Mortality rates for those involved in prostitution are exceptionally high. In a UK-based study of sex workers in London, the mortality rate of female sex workers was recorded as 12 times higher than women from the general population and murder was identified as one of the leading causes of death. An analysis of the UK murder database for 1990-2016 also concluded that people in prostitution are, by a large margin, the group at most risk of homicide. It noted a significant increase in the homicides of women involved in selling or exchanging sex indoors as well as migrant women.
Joanne, another participant in the Inside Outside project, describes an attack she experienced which could have resulted in her death:
Physical violence
In November 2021, the Encompass Snapshot showed that out of 150 women involved in selling or exchanging sex who were supported in Scotland, 81 had needed support in relation to their safety. A separate UK-wide report by Campbell et al also found that 25% of women selling/exchanging sex indoors had experienced physical violence, while 20% had been forced to perform sexual acts without consent.
The physical violence that women experience can include being slapped, punched, robbed, stabbed, assaulted, threatened with a weapon and kidnapping. The violence can happen in public or private spaces and the perpetrators can include punters, pimps, traffickers, intimate partners, members of the public and other women involved in the sex industry.
Some of the key triggers identified as leading to aggression from clients or those posing as clients include: refusing to perform certain sex acts, disputes over money, the sex act finishing before the man has reached orgasm, and the client failing to get an erection. These have been highlighted as flash points which can result in serious violence.
Threat of murder
Mortality rates for those involved in prostitution are exceptionally high. In a UK-based study of sex workers in London, the mortality rate of female sex workers was recorded as 12 times higher than women from the general population and murder was identified as one of the leading causes of death. An analysis of the UK murder database for 1990-2016 also concluded that people in prostitution are, by a large margin, the group at most risk of homicide. It noted a significant increase in the homicides of women involved in selling or exchanging sex indoors as well as migrant women.
Joanne, another participant in the Inside Outside project, describes an attack she experienced which could have resulted in her death:
“I was out, and a young boy approached me, he was maybe 19, 20. He never had a car, so we went to a place that he had picked. . . He was acting very nervous. . . He offered me money for my bra. Now I know that might seem quite strange but it’s not an uncommon thing to happen. I gave him my bra, and he gave me the money. From that second he just turned on me, putting the bra around my neck and really viciously beating me and strangling me. I was fighting for my life with him. I really was fighting for my life.”
Sexual violence
Many women in the sex industry are survivors of sexual violence - the Encompass Snapshot found that 35 out of the 150 supported had disclosed experiences of childhood sexual abuse. At the same time, women selling or exchanging sex also have a higher risk of experiencing sexual violence. A 2004 study found that more than 50% of women in prostitution in the UK had been raped and/or seriously sexually assaulted. In 2016, 40% of 204 women selling or exchanging sex that accessed a specialist service in Edinburgh disclosed that they had experienced rape and sexual violence.
Joanne experienced rape whilst selling sex and she explained the impact of this:
Many women in the sex industry are survivors of sexual violence - the Encompass Snapshot found that 35 out of the 150 supported had disclosed experiences of childhood sexual abuse. At the same time, women selling or exchanging sex also have a higher risk of experiencing sexual violence. A 2004 study found that more than 50% of women in prostitution in the UK had been raped and/or seriously sexually assaulted. In 2016, 40% of 204 women selling or exchanging sex that accessed a specialist service in Edinburgh disclosed that they had experienced rape and sexual violence.
Joanne experienced rape whilst selling sex and she explained the impact of this:
“There's quite a lot of violence, because I think men think they're buying your silence. The way prostitution is in society, men know that the women are not going to go to the police, so they can turn very violent very easily on you. There was a time that I was raped and I was beaten pretty badly and I literally went and washed my face and went back to work again because I never had enough money to leave for my drugs.”
In addition, women often witness or hear of sexual violence against fellow women involved in selling or exchanging sex. Whether women experience the violence directly or they witness it being perpetrated against other women, their sense of safety is deeply challenged. Indeed, according to Phipps, the long-term impact of this violence is two-fold: it can mean women normalise and accept violence and aggressive behaviour as part of selling sex, while on the other hand the anxiety of being in a constant state of alert can lead women to self-blame when they are attacked.
Katie, who took part in Inside Outside, explained the effects of seeing other women being victimised:
Katie, who took part in Inside Outside, explained the effects of seeing other women being victimised:
“I've worked with girls that, when I see them – how they'll come out of being with a customer. It's literally soul-destroying seeing them in that state. Those girls cannot hold their own and they're probably not right for it because they are being pushed about. It affects you seeing them, cos you want to help them but you can't. Unless they help themselves, there's no point in you continuously telling them like, to say no. When you know these girls and you see them every day and then you see them like that and… it's not easy.”
Emotional abuse and stigma
Selling and exchanging sex presents emotional risks for women: not only is there the direct psychological hurt caused by clients - who can become verbally abusive, judgemental or coercive and controlling -, but also members of the community who hold negative views of women who sell or exchange sex. Joanne’s testimony exemplifies the levels of public harassment and stigma that many women are subjected to:
Selling and exchanging sex presents emotional risks for women: not only is there the direct psychological hurt caused by clients - who can become verbally abusive, judgemental or coercive and controlling -, but also members of the community who hold negative views of women who sell or exchange sex. Joanne’s testimony exemplifies the levels of public harassment and stigma that many women are subjected to:
“People used to stop in cars shouting things, throw things at you. They used to think it was funny. You wish that the ground could open up and swallow you. You don't want to but you become quite hardened to it, always ready to jump into something, ready to fight, ready to argue.”
Other sources of emotional stress for women include: managing the differences between having sex as a way of receiving money and having sex as pleasure; in intimate relationships the risks posed by the loss of anonymity or being “outed” for involvement in the sex industry; and the potential of coping strategies that are no longer working. The impact of these cannot be underestimated - some women describe the fear of being outed as being greater than any potential physical harm.
Domestic abuse
Women who sell or exchange sex very often present with past experiences of domestic abuse. In some cases, abusive partners have forced women to have sex with other men for money or to produce sexual images which the abuser then sells online.
The Encompass 2021 Snapshot showed that out of the 150 supported 81 (54%) disclosed experiences of domestic abuse. Likewise, Vice Versa, a specialist service working with women involved in the ‘sex industry’ in Dundee reported that over 50% of women who engaged with the service between 2019 and 2022 had experienced domestic abuse.
In a recent Encompass survey conducted in Scotland, some Women’s Aid groups have described supporting women who have been coerced by their abusive partner into having sex with others or having sex filmed. Women with prior experience of domestic abuse who have no access to public funds, can find themselves engaging in selling sex as a way to get income when leaving an abusive partner. And in some cases, the pressure from coercive and abusive partners/pimps can pose a barrier to women who wish to stop selling or exchanging sex.
Trafficking
The 2021 Encompass Snapshot found that out of 150 women supported in a week, 58 had been trafficked. Of those for whom information was provided, 41 had been trafficked and exploited within the UK and 24 abroad. Some women had been exploited both in the UK and abroad and had been moved through multiple countries. Police Scotland previously noted that there is evidence of trafficking in each area of Scotland and acknowledges that trafficking for sexual exploitation tends to be under-reported.
During the pandemic, trafficking continued with 84 women brought to Scotland for sexual exploitation.
Some exploiters may recruit women by promising better opportunities or access to basic needs like food and shelter. Others will use coercion and force. Women who are currently involved in the ‘sex industry’ can also experience trafficking. This can happen when, for example, when they are recruited to do stripping only to find themselves being forced into prostitution or escorting.
Online abuse
Over the last 15 years, prostitution in public settings has decreased due to an increase in usage of internet and smart devices, where arranging the purchase of sex can be more discreet. When the pandemic and lockdown started, many women who were involved in street prostitution had to move online to continue receiving money. Some support workers noted that having to move quickly from face-to-face to offering sexual services online meant that women couldn’t create the safety plans they would normally do.
Selling or exchanging sex online can include using websites and social media platforms to advertise services, webcamming and private gallery platforms (such as AdmireMe and OnlyFans), and creating sexual content to be sold online. Although selling or exchanging sex online may appear to be safer than direct sexual services, women have reported different instances of online abuse. The 2017 report ‘Beyond the Gaze’ found that 45.6% of respondents experienced repeated unwanted contact; 36.3% received threatening or harassing texts, calls or emails; 33.1% received no payment or risked to be underpaid; and 31% were verbally abused. Women also raised doxing (i.e. revealing someone’s personal details online) and threats to out individuals as a significant concern.
CLiCK Scotland also described women experiencing content piracy when moving online during the pandemic, including having their content stolen from subscription sites like Only Fans and shared across the Internet through online forums. About this particular issue, a support worker from the Revenge Porn helpline explained:
Domestic abuse
Women who sell or exchange sex very often present with past experiences of domestic abuse. In some cases, abusive partners have forced women to have sex with other men for money or to produce sexual images which the abuser then sells online.
The Encompass 2021 Snapshot showed that out of the 150 supported 81 (54%) disclosed experiences of domestic abuse. Likewise, Vice Versa, a specialist service working with women involved in the ‘sex industry’ in Dundee reported that over 50% of women who engaged with the service between 2019 and 2022 had experienced domestic abuse.
In a recent Encompass survey conducted in Scotland, some Women’s Aid groups have described supporting women who have been coerced by their abusive partner into having sex with others or having sex filmed. Women with prior experience of domestic abuse who have no access to public funds, can find themselves engaging in selling sex as a way to get income when leaving an abusive partner. And in some cases, the pressure from coercive and abusive partners/pimps can pose a barrier to women who wish to stop selling or exchanging sex.
Trafficking
The 2021 Encompass Snapshot found that out of 150 women supported in a week, 58 had been trafficked. Of those for whom information was provided, 41 had been trafficked and exploited within the UK and 24 abroad. Some women had been exploited both in the UK and abroad and had been moved through multiple countries. Police Scotland previously noted that there is evidence of trafficking in each area of Scotland and acknowledges that trafficking for sexual exploitation tends to be under-reported.
During the pandemic, trafficking continued with 84 women brought to Scotland for sexual exploitation.
Some exploiters may recruit women by promising better opportunities or access to basic needs like food and shelter. Others will use coercion and force. Women who are currently involved in the ‘sex industry’ can also experience trafficking. This can happen when, for example, when they are recruited to do stripping only to find themselves being forced into prostitution or escorting.
Online abuse
Over the last 15 years, prostitution in public settings has decreased due to an increase in usage of internet and smart devices, where arranging the purchase of sex can be more discreet. When the pandemic and lockdown started, many women who were involved in street prostitution had to move online to continue receiving money. Some support workers noted that having to move quickly from face-to-face to offering sexual services online meant that women couldn’t create the safety plans they would normally do.
Selling or exchanging sex online can include using websites and social media platforms to advertise services, webcamming and private gallery platforms (such as AdmireMe and OnlyFans), and creating sexual content to be sold online. Although selling or exchanging sex online may appear to be safer than direct sexual services, women have reported different instances of online abuse. The 2017 report ‘Beyond the Gaze’ found that 45.6% of respondents experienced repeated unwanted contact; 36.3% received threatening or harassing texts, calls or emails; 33.1% received no payment or risked to be underpaid; and 31% were verbally abused. Women also raised doxing (i.e. revealing someone’s personal details online) and threats to out individuals as a significant concern.
CLiCK Scotland also described women experiencing content piracy when moving online during the pandemic, including having their content stolen from subscription sites like Only Fans and shared across the Internet through online forums. About this particular issue, a support worker from the Revenge Porn helpline explained:
“Women don’t always feel that they are in complete control on platforms, in terms of selling or exchanging sex, because they don’t know who is sitting on the other side of the computer screen. They don’t feel they have complete control over their images as people could screenshot them … a few of my clients unfortunately have had people threaten to out them.”
Sexual health
Sexual health is another key consideration for women who sell or exchange sex. While most women are doing all they can to protect their sexual health, the precautions they are taking can be undermined by buyers’ actions – including demands for unprotected oral, vaginal and anal sex and the practice of stealthing (removal of a condom during intercourse without the woman’s consent).
In an American study at a family planning clinic with women who sold sex, 40% reported that they were offered more money for unprotected sex, 30% reported a history of client condom refusal, and 16.5% reported they were forced to have sex in the past. The buyer/client’s demand for unprotected sex paired with the inability to negotiate condom use can be a considerable issue for women who substance misuse. As one sexual health practitioner in Scotland put it:
Sexual health is another key consideration for women who sell or exchange sex. While most women are doing all they can to protect their sexual health, the precautions they are taking can be undermined by buyers’ actions – including demands for unprotected oral, vaginal and anal sex and the practice of stealthing (removal of a condom during intercourse without the woman’s consent).
In an American study at a family planning clinic with women who sold sex, 40% reported that they were offered more money for unprotected sex, 30% reported a history of client condom refusal, and 16.5% reported they were forced to have sex in the past. The buyer/client’s demand for unprotected sex paired with the inability to negotiate condom use can be a considerable issue for women who substance misuse. As one sexual health practitioner in Scotland put it:
“A lot of females report getting more money for unprotected sex and if they’re desperate, if they have habits, that often happens and when I speak to them once they’re stable…they all recognise that it’s risky behaviour, but they all say - I needed the money.”
Women report ongoing worries and fears about the impact on their sexual and reproductive health, including any potential long-term impacts on their fertility through such things as sexually transmitted infections and pelvic inflammatory disease.
Trauma and the impact of abuse and violence
The risks and experiences of abuse and violence mentioned throughout this article can have long-lasting effects for women. There is evidence of high levels of trauma among individuals selling or exchanging sex. Among more than 800 participants in nine countries, two thirds met diagnostic criteria for post-traumatic stress disorder; symptoms of emotional distress also included depression, suicidal ideation, dissociation and substance misuse.
These are only some of the impacts to the wellbeing of women. You can read about the mental health needs of women involved in this article. However, it is essential to keep in mind how present trauma can be in women's lives and the fact that trauma will manifest in different ways when engaging with support. In the words of Rebecca, a woman who used to do various types of indoor prostitution:
Trauma and the impact of abuse and violence
The risks and experiences of abuse and violence mentioned throughout this article can have long-lasting effects for women. There is evidence of high levels of trauma among individuals selling or exchanging sex. Among more than 800 participants in nine countries, two thirds met diagnostic criteria for post-traumatic stress disorder; symptoms of emotional distress also included depression, suicidal ideation, dissociation and substance misuse.
These are only some of the impacts to the wellbeing of women. You can read about the mental health needs of women involved in this article. However, it is essential to keep in mind how present trauma can be in women's lives and the fact that trauma will manifest in different ways when engaging with support. In the words of Rebecca, a woman who used to do various types of indoor prostitution:
“Most of the trauma is formed because prostituted women, especially exited women, are not allowed to grieve, to have deep fury, or to seek justice. This comes from our individual journeys, but also from being connected to the prostituted of all times, all countries, all ages, and all backgrounds.”
Read our practice points to find our practical things you can do to improve how you respond to women's safety needs.
